Development In Social And Cultural Contexts

Development In Social And Cultural Contexts According to sociocultural theories, child development differentiates in different social and cultural contexts. Culturally- specific beliefs and practices in each sociocultural context influence childrens development in its unique way (Berk, 2009). This essay sets out to examine how Chinese childrens developments in academic knowledge and temperament are impacted by culturally-specific child rearing in Chinese society. Bronfenbrenners ecological systems theory and Vygotskys sociocultural theory are applied to analyse the general practices, the assumptions, the beliefs and the upheld values of child rearing in China. Definitions of Culture and Society Culture and society may mean different things to different people. For instance, society is defined as an association with ones fellowsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, the system of customs and organization adopted by a body of individualsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, the aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered communityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ in the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (2002, p.2906, cited in New Zealand Tertiary College[NZTC], 2010). In this essay, society refers to the aggregate of people living together. Therefore, the Chinese society means the populations living in China. Culture in this essay refers to the distinctive customs, achievements, products, outlook, etc., of a societyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦as defined in the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (2002, p. 575, cited in NZTC, 2010). By culturally-specific child rearing practices within this essay, it means the consistent and similar child rearing practices adopted by Chinese, such as feeding, toilet training, sleeping arrangement, a nd discipline. Academic Knowledge and Temperament of shyness Generally speaking, there are three broad domains of child development: physical, emotional and social, and cognitive (Berk, 2009). This essay will focus on studying the influence of culturally-specific child rearing on Chinese childrens academic learning (cognitive development) and temperament (emotional and social development). In a study of Hong Kong-Chinese preschool childrens literacy skills, it is advised that: 75% of five years olds can write their names in Chinese correctly; more than 50% of four years olds can write appropriately using strokes and stroke patterns (the two smallest units in Chinese writings); 75% of three years olds can differentiate drawing from writing, and 20% can write appropriately (Chan Louies, 1992, cited in Chan, Juan, Foon, 2008). In international cross-cultural studies of reading, mathematics, and science achievement, children from all the participating Chinese cities, namely Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macao, are rated top performers, way above the international level (Programme for International Student Assessment, 2003, 2006, cited in Berk, 2009). Despite relevant high academic achievement, most cross-cultural studies define Chinese children as shy and withdrawn (Chen, Rubin, Li, 1995, Chen et al., 1998, cited in Berk, 2009). In a cross-cultural study of Chinese and Canadian two years olds, Chinese toddlers were found significantly more inhibited than Canadian ones (Chen et al., 1998, cited in Papalia, Olds, Feldman, 2004). Child rearing practices in the Ecological Systems According to Bronfenbrenner, the environment influencing child development can be classified into five different layers from the innermost to the outermost levels: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and the chronosystem. The microsystem refers to childrens immediate environment, such as home and early childhood centre .The mesosystem is the interaction between the microsystems. Other social settings outside the immediate environment that affect childrens development make up the exosystem. The macrosystem includes cultural values, laws, customs, and resources. Chronosystem means the whole environment system is an ever-changing system. Any changes in life events imposed by others or by the children as they grow up can modify the systems (Berk, 2009). The child rearing practices in the respective systems that contribute to childrens development of relevant high academic performance and temperament of shyness are analysed as below. At home (microsystem), the childcare is mostly carried out by mothers. Chinese mothers are found to indulge their infants and toddlers in terms of feeding, sleeping (Roopnariane Carter, 1992, cited in Yunus, 2005). They always keep their children close to them and favour physical contact over verbal stimulation. The mothers start toilet training the babies when they are six months and most of they are successfully trained by one and half years old (Whiting Whiting, 1975, Sung, 1995, Lee, 1999, cited in Yunus, 2005). It is suggested by Kelly and Tseng (2000, cited in Yunus, 2005) that the over-indulgence and early rigid toilet training are positively related to Chinese childrens slow physical and motor development. The fathers role is to discipline children. The discipline is taught by induction: explicit statement of what exactly the child is expected to do and why. If the child doesnt do as told, some parents might resort to shaming the misbehaved child, retrieving their love or e ven physical punishment (Jose, Huntsinger, Huntsinger, Liaw, 2000, Schwalb, Nakazawa, Yamamoto, Hyun, 2004, cited in Berk, 2009). The parenting style is less warm and more controlling (Dehart, Sroufe, Cooper, 2004; Berk, 2009). Yunus(2005) suggests that Chinese parenting is more authoritarian compared to Western parenting. The communication pattern is one way: parent to child. At most times, children listen attentively to what parents say. Children are not to openly express opinions on certain issues (Chiew, 2000, Zhao, 2002, Akhtar, 1998, cited in Yunus, 2005), or to express strong emotions ever since they are babies (Berk, 2009). It is found that parents do little to help their children release emotions, encouraging them to hide the emotions (Chan, Bowes, Wyver, 2009).. Children are taught the emotion-feeling rules and display rules justified with moral reasons (Wang, 2006, cited in Chan et al., 2009). Being reared in an authoritarian way and taught the emotion display rules (hiding the emotions), Chinese children are inclined to be shy and withdrawn (Chan et. al., 2009). In terms of parents attitudes towards play, almost all Chinese parents discourage their children to play at home. They often tell their children Dont think of playing all the time. Learning is most important. Believing in the importance of academic learning, parents begin to teach their children to count and write since they are three in most cases. Therefore, for home activities as well as mother-child interaction, it would be mother teaching the child to write, count, and appropriate social behaviour through fable storytelling, especially respecting the elders (Pearson Rao, 2003). A recent survey shows that before children attend primary school, 88.6% parents teach their children reading, recognising Chinese characters and counting; 28.2% parents teach their children foreign language, and 20.3% parents tutor their children the courses for primary school (Wang, Wang, Chen, 2010). A lot of demonstration, time to practice academic skills, and explicit values of academic skills, faci litate Chinese childrens development in academic knowledge (Chan et al., 2008; Gershoff Aber, 2006, cited in Berk, 2009). Most Chinese parents send their children to kindergartens when they are three. The children will then spend eight to nine hours daily in the kindergarten (Liu Elicker, 2005). The interaction between Chinese parents and teachers (mesosystem) is limited (Schwartz, 2003, cited in Yunus, 2005). While parents do concern about their childrens learning, they assign the teaching responsibility to teachers, relying on the teachers for childrens learning in the kindergarten (Morrow, 1999, cited in Yunus, 2005). In a survey of parents expectations of kindergarten teaching, parents express their main aspirations for their children as possessing academic skills and filial piety (88%) (Xinyuan Kindergarten, 2010). Parents highly valuing academic skills urges teachers to put a lot of efforts in academic teaching to meet up their expectations. In China the child rearing is shared among the extended family (exosystem), especially grandparents take up a large role in raising the children. The filial piety and the whole system of family are greatly valued among the extended family (Yunus, 2005). Children are taught the importance of respecting the elders and the obligation to contribute to familys honour by behaving properly (Zhao, 2002, cited in Yunus, 2005). When children are shy, reticent, quiet, they are considered by the extended family to be well-behaved and having sense of understanding (Hart, Yang, Nelson, Robinson, Olsen, Nelson, Porter, Jin, Olsen, Wu, 2000). Children are constantly reminded that their first means to fulfil family responsibility and obligation is through education (Yunus, 2005). The expectation of academic achievement and honouring family reputations placed by the extended family put pressure on parents child education and childrens motivation towards high academic performance. In macrosystem, the Chinese families are greatly influenced by Confucian philosophy stressing the importance of academic achievement and social harmony. The following assumptions are deeply rooted in Chinese child rearing practices: children inherently penchant for the good; proper training during early childhood helps to build childrens positive character; formal education and high standards of academic achievement is important for childrens development (Yunus, 2005). It is the custom that parents are to provide an environment conducive to academic achievement, while children are to work hard for high performance in academics. Besides, Chinese value the doctrine of mean (Zhong Yong Zhi Dao in Mandarin), not being extreme. Inhibited, sensitive, and socially restrained behaviour are highly valued in the Chinese culture (Ho, 1986, Lao, 1996, Chen, in press, cited in Hart et al., 2000). It is partly because they prioritise the importance of maintaining social order and interpersonal har mony in the society at large in the collectivism society (Hart e al., 2000). The one-child policy in China also affects childrens development to a great extent. Having only one child, a lot of parents do their best to start their childrens education at the possible earliest age to make their children more advantaged within the intensely competitive Chinese educational system (Brassard Chen, 2005). Government also devote the increased resources to the care and education of children to support the families and to secure the countrys future generations success in the highly competitive economy (Dehart et al., 2004). In the chronosystem, while shyness is traditionally valued by parents and the society, recent researches indicate a change of peoples attitudes towards childrens shyness. With the rapid growth of the economy, assertiveness and sociability started to be viewed as desirable for success in the society (Chen, Wang, DeSouza, 2006, Yu, 2002, cited in Berk, 2009). It is reasonable to assume, with parents values swift, their way of interacting with children will change accordingly in the future, influencing childrens development in a different way. Figure 1. Chinese child rearing practices contributing to academic learning and shyness in the Ecological Systems. Vygotskys sociocultural theory According to Vygotskys sociocultural theory, each culture provides its own context and different goals for children (Drewery Bird, 2004). Vygotsky proposes that cultural influence children through cultural tools, which refer to the knowledge of cultural practices that help children fit into their cultural context, including language, rituals, ceremonies and social values and beliefs that guide peoples thinking (Crain, 2000, cited in NZTC, 2010). Vygotsky further suggests that the values, beliefs, customs and desirable skills of a culture are transmitted to the next generation through social interaction, in particular through scaffolding by adults and more-advanced peers (Rowe Wertsch, 2002, cited in Berk, 2009). In china, the selected goals for children are high academic achievement and maintaining social harmony. There goals are valued by the Confucian philosophy which still deeply influences the Chinese parents (Hart et al., 2000). Parents encourage children to develop these culturally valued skills at an early age of three. Children strive for these desirable skills to fit into the sociocultural context. Social value and belief of early formal education, cultural practices upholding the academics and proper social behaviour of respecting elders and shyness add to the Chinese cultural tools. All these cultural tools support the daily child rearing practices, educational activities, the routines, the child-adult interactions as analysed in the ecological systems (Crain, 2000, cited in NZTC, 2010). Through interaction with their parents, extended family, children learn, apply and internalize these cultural values and tools of academic learning and temperament of shyness. Conclusion Different sociocultural environment places different goals and expectations on children. When the sociocultural context changes over time, certain values and practices might change. Generally speaking, Chinese children are expected to fulfill the goals and expectations of academic achievement and maintaining social harmony placed by their parents, extended family, and society. The values, beliefs upheld by the society affect the parents and extended family, and the extended family and parents influence childrens development in academic learning and temperament through specific child rearing practices emphasising these skills.

Tell Tale Heart Essay

HTH s idea is portrayed hen we see the protagonists struggle between himself and the old man's eve axed eye. As the story progresses, the conflict between the protagonist and the beating heart r enders the idea of the narrator versus himself. The external struggle within the Story seems to be the narrator's conflict with the old man. The protagonist loved the old man, eliminating motives that might normally in spire such a violent murder.As he proclaims his own sanity, the narrator fixates on the old man's vulture. â€Å"It was open wide, wide open and grew furious as gazed upon it. Saw it wit h perfect strictness all a dull blue, with a hideous veil over it that chilled the very mar row in my bones; but I could see nothing else of the old man ‘s face or person: for I had directed the ray as if by instinct, precisely upon the damned spot. † The narrator reduces the old man t o the distinctive blue of his eye in obsessive fashion.He separates the man from his â€Å"Evil Eye† so he can spare the man the burden of guilt that he attributes to the eye itself. The narrator FAA ills to see that the eye of the old man is a fundamental part of his identity that cannot be isolate d as the narrator abnormally imagines. As a result of his warped sense of reality, the narrator obsesses over the low beats of the man's heart, yet shows little concern about the man's shrieks, which are loud enough to attract his neighbor's attention and draw the police to the scene of the crime.Through hoot the story, he explains that he is not mad, but ironically, he is the opposite of this, as he strut eagles to comprehend his own mind. The narrator's paranoia and guilt make it mine NT that he will give himself away. The police arrive on the scene to give him the opportunity to be tray himself. The more the narrator professes his own calm manner, the more he is unable to e cape the beating of his own heart, which he mistakes for the beating of the old man's heart.As he co nfesses to the crime in the final sentence, he addresses the policemen as â€Å"villains,† indicating g his incapability to distinguish between their real identity and his own villainy. The internal conflict within the story is disguised as external conflict, through t he way that Poe describes the struggle of man versus man and man versus self. The protagonist battles with the old man's â€Å"vexed† eye; however, this slowly turns into a combat bet en the narrators own mind, as he tries to escape the beating of his own heart.

How John Hersey Revealed the Horrors of the Atomic Bomb to the US - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1400 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2019/07/31 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: Hiroshima Essay Did you like this example? The non-fiction book Hiroshima by John Hersey is one that comes with an overwhelming amount of emotions. John Herseys Hiroshima had many themes such as fear, panic, grief, disgust, and hope. The book describes the stories of six survivors hours before the bomb and weeks after, with a conclusion of their lives forty years later. This essay will critically analyze John Herseys book Hiroshima which will bring awareness to its readers about the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, Japan through all six survivors real-life experiences. The first chapter of the book named the A Noiseless Flash opens with the events of the six survivors hours before the atomic bomb hit Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. Throughout chapter one the readers become acquainted with the six individuals: Miss Toshiko Sasaki a twenty-year-old clerk who worked for East Asia Tin Works and was 1,600 yards from the center of the bomb. Father Wilhelm Kleinsorge a German priest who was having difficulty adjusting to the Japan life and was about 1,400 yards from the point of the explosion. Dr. Masakazu Fujii a physician of a prosperous single-doctor hospital was situated about 1,550 yards from the epicenter of the explosion. Dr. Terufumi Sasaki who shares the same surname as Toshiko but not related, a 25-year-old Red Cross hospital surgeon situated 1,650 yards from point of explosion. Reverend Mr. Kiyoshi Tanimoto a pastor at Hiroshima Methodist Church, fluent in English, was at the point of the explosion over 3000 yards. Mrs. Hatsuyo Nakamura a tailors widow raising her children, who loved only 1350 yards from where the atomic bomb was dropped. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "How John Hersey Revealed the Horrors of the Atomic Bomb to the US" essay for you Create order The second chapter named The Fire continues with the events that occurred directly after the explosion. After the atomic bomb hit fires rapidly spread through Hiroshima causing more chaos for six survivors. This chapter details their attempt to escape the rapidly growing fires and help fellow victims. The individuals are divided into a division of those who are in tremendous agony, and those who feel an intolerable amount of guilt for not being as injured as those around them. The third chapter titled Details Are Being Investigated shows the realizations of the six individuals as they deal with the chaos that surrounds them. Mr. Tanimoto works tirelessly to carry an individual from one side of the river to the other in order to escape the flames. The Nakamuras suffering from sickness learn that all their family is dead. Due to his help during the explosion, Father Kleinsorge is accepted amongst the Japanese. Miss Sasaki lying helpless outside the factory until someone spots her, calls for help then is taken helps to a hospital. The city is overtaken with corpses, while Dr. Sasaki, overworked and severely sleep deprived, attends to an overwhelming number of patients. Meanwhile, Dr. Fujii sleeps inside his familys collapsing house and is seriously injured. The chapter ends with the defeat and surrender of Japan. The next chapter called Panic Grass and Feverfew begins twelve days after the attack and the rapidly continues to the rehabilitation of the city and six survivors. The secondary effects of the radiation from the atomic bomb are now appearing in the survivors. The six individuals and all affected began to come down with malaise, hair loss, nausea, pain, and fever. Little did they know that they developed what later became known as radiation sickness. Feelings of anti-American sentiment spread throughout the Japanese communities until it was announced that the radiation levels were safe enough for individuals to return to Hiroshima. A theory by Dr.Sasaki and his colleagues suggested that the unprecedented diseases unfolded in three stages. The chapter ends with the summary of the six survivors lives a year after the atomic bombing. Miss Sasaki was still disabled, Mrs. Nakamura was poverty-stricken, father Kleinsorge was once again in the hospital, Dr. Sasaki the only surgeon was often times overworked, Dr. Fujii had lost the prestigious hospital that took him many years to acquire, and Mr.Tanimotos had been ruined with no means to rebuild. The last chapter called The Aftermath takes place forty years after the atomic bombing. This last chapter highlights the anti-semitic feelings toward survivors who were now called Hibakusha that literally translated to explosion-affected person. These Hibakusha were treated with prejudice by employers since they were prone to many ailments and needed many days of rest. The government did little to nothing to provide physical or economic relief for the survivors until 1957, twelve years later a law called the Diet was passed. Despite their many setbacks, the six survivors achieved somewhat a degree of happiness. Reading this book affected me in many ways. The way John Hersey described the events that unfolded through the eyes of the survivors made me feel as if I was witnessing the tragic moments right before my eyes. I felt extreme grief as each individual detailed their own accounts immediately after the bombing. During Mr.Tanimotos account with the individuals that were stuck in the mud, he said On the other side, at a higher spit, he lifted the slimy living bodies out and carried them up the slope away from the tide. He had to keep consciously repeating to himself, these are human beings (Hersey 45)after reading this quote I came to realize just how grotesque the conditions of the victims were. Mr. Tanimoto, despite the disgust he may have felt helping the slimy individuals did so because they were human which made me feel a sense of sympathy for Mr.Tanimoto. As I read their accounts I would imagine myself in their position and came to have anger toward the American military and Presiden t Truman for allowing such an atrocity to occur. I felt even angrier that for many years the Japanese government did nothing to help the victims of the bombing physically or economically for many years after the attack took place. At times I had to stop and take a break from the book because of the deep sorrow I felt. Towards the end of the book, I felt a sense of hope for the six survivors. Despite all their ailments that sometimes enabled them, they went on with their lives as best as they could. Reading accounts such as these makes me realize just how much worse my life could be. The book, in my opinion, left out the also important views of the American people. I see how tremendously the Japanese people suffered but, he fails to mention the sufferings of the American people at Pearl Harbor and the death march at the Bataan Camps that lead to the atomic bombing. He failed to give me a chance to develop a fair opinion since he left out the perspectives of the American people. Despite the exclusion of the American perspective, I would highly recommend this book to other individuals. This book details important historical events that impacted humanity. John Hersey interestingly described the tragic events of the six survivors that kept me wanting more. I feel that books such as Hiroshima should be read by everyone to prevent such horrendous events from occurring again. From reading Hiroshima, I learned the importance of history in my life today. I learned that humans can be sympathetic, helpful, and put aside their differences to overcome such a tragedy. I also learned that humans can be cruel and selfish just as the Americans who bombed Hiroshima without a thought about the consequences. This book relates to this course in the theme of chapter 26 called Containing the Japanese. In this section, the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor is brought up along with the attack on Americas reaming air power in the Philippines prior to the American attack on the Japanese. The lives of the individuals were all tremendously affected, but they all eventually achieved a degree of happiness. Despite their lives being negatively affected by the travesty of the explosion, all six survivors found a way to go on. Although Hiroshima was written in a fictional setting it is important to remember that these accounts Hersey is writing about are in fact true. John Hersey does not give his own opinion and leaves the reader yearning for more answers. John Herseys intentions in writing this book were to prevent us from repeating history and hopefully give more thought before the use of a nuclear weapon on civilians is made. In conclusion, the book reminds us humans of the powerful horrors of weapons of mass destruction.

Historical Cultural Context On The City Of Corinth

INTRODUCTION 1 Corinthians 1:18-25, in many ways offers a measuring stick for what true wisdom and power is, according to Scripture. While the believers in Corinth are looking for, and claiming to have, true wisdom and power, Paul addresses the issue and makes it clear that true wisdom and power are found in Christ and in the message of the cross. In no uncertain terms, Paul states that the wisdom of the world is lacking and is unable to save â€Å"those who are perishing.† But, the so-called foolishness of God has the power to save those who believe, and is found only in the cross of Jesus Christ. While Jews and Greeks alike are searching for that which saves, Paul makes it clear that salvation is not found in the wisdom and power of†¦show more content†¦Because of its beneficial geographical location, Corinth was extremely prosperous, and that financial prosperity led to ever increasing moral corruption. While most Greco-Roman cities were marked with immorality, Corinth se emed to rise above the rest in this particular area. â€Å"Even by the pagan standards of its own culture, Corinth became so morally corrupt that its very name became synonymous with debauchery and moral depravity.† LITERARY CONTEXT The first letter to the Corinthians as a whole alternates between responses to reports and answers to questions from the church, and 1 Corinthians 1:18-25 is found in the beginning of Paul’s first response to reports dealing with factions and divisions within the body of believers. The previous section of the letter is the introduction and Paul’s note of thanks for the Corinthian believers. There is a distinct note of commendation and love in the first section before Paul begins to condemn and exhort the Corinthians for their poor behavior. Much of this behavior is linked to their boasting about their wisdom, or the wisdom of those whom they choose to follow. Therefore, much of Paul’s teaching is in relation to true wisdom, as opposed to worldly wisdom. Paul continues to address the issue of factions in the church by further concentrating on the issue of wisdom, before he begins approaching other issues from the report in chapters 5 and 6. F ollowing this, Paul begins to address the questions posed by the

The Bible Concerns Of Peter - 2082 Words

One fascinating story in the Bible concerns Peter. He was, from the beginning, a colorful character. He was a natural leader, boisterous, first to speak even before his brain was engaged sometimes, full of bravado until it came to the arrest of Jesus, the crucifixion, and the events surrounding it. Peter was the one who wanted to take on the soldiers who arrested Jesus. He unleashed his sword and sliced an ear off a servant of the High Priest. He was the one who denied Jesus when the heat was on in the High Priest’s courtyard. He went out weeping, filled with guilt and doubt (Luke 22:62). Within weeks, this same beaten man was standing up preaching fearlessly and watching as some three thousand repented and were baptized. He healed†¦show more content†¦Paul wanted to know the power of the resurrection in his life—power to overcome temptation, power to live a victorious Christian life, power to be an effective, fearless disciple (Romans 8:11). The other major event was the coming of the Holy Spirit to indwell all of Christ’s disciples. Previously, the Holy Spirit had come upon individuals for particular ministries—but now, as part of the new relationship that God wanted with His people, the Spirit was going to permanently indwell Christians. Jesus had promised the disciples He would send this Spirit, although He didn’t fill them in completely about what the Spirit would be doing. However, after the resurrection, Jesus didn’t hang back. His final words before departing were dramatic: â€Å"You will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes upon you,† he told them in Acts 1:8. And so it was. Peter was soon on his feet preaching one of the most powerful sermons of all time.Many people believe that this verse does not apply to them. That somehow that power was solely related to the early church. That belief is reinforced by the unfortunate abuse of the Holy Spirit by those claiming a great deal more than they should in the name of Christ. The truth is not that we need more of the Holy Spirit, but that He should have more of us. When we yield ourselves to Christ, putting all hindrances to death, and live in the power of the resurrection, then the power of the Spirit can be released in us. A Message

Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder Free Essays

In the sass’s so many terms were being thrown around trying to explain what Schizophrenia was. It took till the early sass’s for a man named Emil Kremlin to truly â€Å"discover† what the disease was and bring together the earlier descriptions (Berries, Lulus, Joss, 2003). . We will write a custom essay sample on Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder or any similar topic only for you Order Now He decided to call it â€Å"dementia praecox† which meant dementia paranoids. It was partially taken from latten version off man names Morel (Berries, Lulus, Joss, 2003). Kremlin was able to make the discovery cause he biased it on empirical observation through observing and recording thousands of case histories, then by following up with his patients. He was able to fugue out the dementia praecox and manic depressive insanity were able to be separated by symptom, course, and outcome (Berries, Lulus, Joss, 2003). Schizophrenia is still one of the most mysterious and costliest mental disorders in terms of human suffering and societal expenditure (van So, 2009). In the earlier history of Schizophrenia treated through cryosurgery. Cryosurgery is the treatment Offs psychiatric disease through neurological treatments. While is has a controversial history it was widely used in the early to mid 19th century. One of the first accounts happened in the mid 18th century when a man named Phonies Gage was hurt at work. A tamping iron was shot through the frontal lobe while working (Creighton, 2001). While most would think this would kill a person, he gained consciousness soon after the accident. Gage went from being an intelligent well- liked man to being an angry and hostile shut in. This left the psychology field on its toes. They realized there was a disruption in his frontal lobe that affected his rationality, and that this could be duplicated in hopes of helping others. The frontal leucotomy was proposed as a potential treatment for schizophrenia because, by creating lesions in the frontal cortex, abnormal activity, presumably originating in this region, would be prevented from spreading to other areas of the brain, which could worsen the symptoms of the disease (Mathews, Wellington, Dead, Robinson, Luck, Jose, Erich, 2013). During the sass’s a procedure was developed called the closed lobotomy, however by the sass’s these practices were stopped because the surgeries caused extensive brain injuries and the pressure of the public. Schizophrenia was one of the conditions for which these treatments were used (Mathews, 2013). Then the use of antispasmodic came into effect and these practices were no longer needed. Like many other neuropsychiatry disorders, there is a typical onset age of late adolescence and early adulthood. The thinking is that this could be a critical period in brain development, which would make the person vulnerable to the onset of psychopathology. While the incidence of schizophrenia varies across environments and different migrant groups, symptoms, course, and treatment response do so as well. Genetic vulnerability is shares in part with bipolar disorder and recent molecular genetics findings indicated an overlap with developmental disorder such as autism. Doctors are using nonrecurring studies to focus on this age range, which will in turn provide helpful insight into the actual insight of the disease (Goat, Was, Taste, Wood, Panatelas, 2011) There has been evidence that patients suffering from schizophrenia end up experiencing more life events when healthy individuals. These life events could be because of the patients behavior, or totally environmental (Farrago, 2008). When looked at these events could be because of the presence of psychiatric condition. However, the quality of interaction between patient and family affects the patients relapse rate (Farrago, 2008). While a positive and loving attitude towards the patient may be productive, it is sometimes hard for a family to respond well to the illness. If the person suffers from paranoid schizophrenia then they will lash out at the family and have hallucinations involving the family. This makes it hard for the family to handle. Also, when the patient goes off meds these things get worse. There is so much stigma surrounding schizophrenia. Will the person hurt me? When are they going to go crazy? Can I catch it? Even to the point that there is a lower priority of mental health services and care received. At times there is a hard time getting good quality of staff to work in these services. Then there is the issue of finding proper housing for people who suffer from this disease, not to mention the social isolation patients feel. There is a long history of intolerance towards mental abnormality. As well as the reaction, others have towards it. This has only progressively gotten worse over the past two centuries. However this is only part of he story, mental illness has also been linked to discrimination as well. While schizophrenia affects about 1% of the world’s population, the cause is still unknown (Nines, 2010). The easiest way to combat the fear is with education. Teaching people as well as families how to handle a patient, and that they often have more lucid moments then not. Bipolar Disorder The ancient Greeks and Romans were responsible for the terms â€Å"mania† and â€Å"melancholia,† which are not the modern day manic and depressive. They discovered that using lithium salts in there baths calmed manic patients and lifted there sprits Cranks, 2012). Today, lithium is a common treatment for bipolar patients. While it is thought that many people were executed because they had a mental illness, being that religious people believed that these people were possessed by demons and should therefore be put to death (Cranks, 2012). Bipolar is most often diagnosed in young patients showing first major depressive episodes. In these cases, diagnosis normally only based on psychiatric history taken, not on the patient’s current state (Holman, Goth, WГ ¶keel, Postal, BГ ¶let, 2008). These patients also suffer with hypotonic episodes. Hypotonic episodes are characterized by a distinct period of persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, lasting throughout at least 4 days and present for most of the day nearly every day. These Patients are normally diagnosed with Bipolar II (Psych Central Staff, 2013). While Bipolar, or manic- depressive disorder is a frequent, sever, mostly recurrent mood disorder it is also associated with great morbidity. The lifetime prevalence of bipolar disorder is 1. 3 to 1. 6% (Mueller-Airlessness, Forgoer, Bauer, 2002). The death rate of bipolar is two to three times higher than that of the general population. On average about 10-20% of individuals suffering from Bipolar disorder will take their own lives, with one third of patients saying they have attempted it (Mueller-Airlessness, Forgoer, Bauer, 2002). Bipolar is not a sexist disease, it does not discriminate. Except for the diagnosis of rapid-cycling, while being the most sever variant of the disease, it is more common in women (Mueller-Airlessness, Forgoer, Bauer, 2002). The peak age of onset falls between age 15 and 24 years, although there is often a 5-10- year interval before treatment is finally sought. Living with a person who has Bipolar disorder involves learning how to deal with the disruptions that their symptoms can cause, supporting that person through their recovery, and finding ways to cope with the effects on the family (Heretofore, 2013). Bipolar can really cause a strain on a family, depending on well managed the illness is (Heretofore, 2013). When the patient’s mood swings are mild, the family may experience some distress, but over time and with proper education about the illness, they can learn to manage. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, more than 5 million Americans eave bipolar disorder (Dickinson, 2007). The illness, which affects not only your own personal health and well-being but also your relationships with friends and family, can respond well to treatment (Dickinson, 2007). Stigma is debilitating for mental illnesses for any disease across the board. While the patient is struggling with the symptoms and disabilities that result from the disease, they are challenged with the stereotypes and prejudices that result from the misconceptions about mental illness (Shame, Chairmanship, Vivian, Woolworth, 2013). These people face challenges tit everyday life, Jobs, housing, health care, as well as dealing with people. Even the people that are family or caregivers have reported being stigmatize, 43 to 92% (Shame, Germans’, Vivian, Woolworth, 2013). Article Journals Summaries Facial expressions of emotions and schizophrenia: A review. Schizophrenia Bulletin This Journal explains how three studies were performed on patients with Schizophrenia. They were interested to see how patients showed a reduced ability to perceive and express facial emotions. They looked at decoding studies and their ability to perceive universally recognized facial expressions. It was found that while Schizophrenics have a harder time displaying positive facial expressions, they were able to show negative feels, such as fear. Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders in Persons Exposed to Ionizing Radiation as a Result of the Coherency Accident This study was performed on 100 workers of the Coherency EX how had worked as â€Å"Liquidators-volunteers† for 5 or more hearsay’s and 1987. This was brought about because in 1990 there was a spike in the amount of patients being diagnosed with Schizophrenia. This was compared against the general population. The thought was hat ionizing radiation may be working as an environmental trigger and causing a predisposition to schizophrenia, or cause schizophrenia-like disorders. The study says that a person exposed to 0. 30 SF or more are at a higher risk of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. A Prospective Cohort Study of Genetic and Perennial Influences in the Etiology of Schizophrenia This study was preformed to figure out whether or not fetal hypoxia and other obstetric complications are related to the risk of adults developing Schizophrenia, also to see if whether each case is specific to early onset. They used 72 patients diagnosed with schizophrenia, 63 of their siblings not diagnosed, and 7,941 non-psychiatric controls. They used longitudinal based study. They were able to find that there was an increased risk with patients that had suffered hypoxia during birth. However, there was no relationship between low birth weight and other obstetric complications. Burden of Caregivers of Patients with Bipolar Affective Disorders This study was conducted on 32 problem-oriented interviews with caregivers of patients with bipolar affective disorders, they were analyzed using content analysis. The 722 statements even about the burdens that these caregivers had were summarized into 49 global statements. The caregivers discussed how they felt helplessness when dealing with the ever-changing depressive and manic symptoms of the ill family member they were caring for. Also how they felt they suffered great burden. The findings of this study highlight that an appreciation of caregivers’ own consternation and information about how best to handle the (uncooperative) behavior of the patient should be taken into account in psycho educational groups as well as in the daily work routine of professionals. Are Working Memory Deficits in Bipolar Disorder Markers for Psychosis Doctors have found that many people suffering with bipolar disorder have been identified as having working memory deficits, however, there has been evidence that has linked this problem as being a marker for psychosis rather than affective disorder. When doing the study they looked at two groups with board, one with psychotic features, one without. With this study they were able to conclude that while some aspects of working memory performance are markers for psychosis, others were more general markers for bipolar disorders. Negative Life Events and Time to Recovery from Episodes of Bipolar Disorder While it is known that negative life events have been shown to cause relapse in patients with bipolar disorder, these doctors were looking at how severe negative life events effect the recovery time of someone with bipolar disorder. They recruited 67 individuals with bipolar disorder during hospitalizing and conducted monthly assessments for at least one year. They were able to find that patients with severe negative life effects took three times longer to recover then patients without negative life situations. Which leads us to live that psychological environment may play a much bigger role in the course of bipolar disorders then previous suggested. How to cite Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder, Papers

Business Association Corporations Law

Question: Discuss about theBusiness Association for Corporations Law. Answer: Introduction Interaction between the companies and stakeholders is regulated and formulated under the corporation law applicable to all the companies whether private or public listed or unlisted. Corporations Law regulates and formulates the provisions, principles and standards that are required to be followed by the directors and management of the companies for operating the business activities. Since directors and management are the personnel to manage the companys business functions, they are responsible to act in the benefit of the investors, consumers and company as a whole including g other stakeholders. The acts and duties of the directors of the companies are defined under the several provision of the Corporations Act[1]. The following assignment highlights the requisite rights and duties of the directors towards the company as well as investors and other stakeholders to maximize the profitability and maintain the sustainability. The assignment covers the discussion on the duties of the d irectors based on the case of Barbarians at the gate, Activist investors and section 249N of the Corporation Act 2001. The act also presents the corporate constitutionalist with respect to the values and ideas considering the political aspects and legal provisional framework while performing the business activities. Discussion According to the Australian Institute of Company Directors, the company is required to be managed and governed by its directors by following the legal rights and duties as defined in the Corporations Act 2001. However, in order to act as a companys director, the individuals are required to abide by the provisions of section 9, Corporation Act 2001 to qualify for the directorship. As per the provision of section 9, the individuals are required to be appointed as director in the company possessing the required knowledge and skill to act in the companys business functions. According to the Australian Corporation Law, the directors are required to follow the basic duties that are due care and diligence, good faith, proper use of position and proper use of information. As per the requirements of section 180, directors of the company are required to perform the business activities with due diligence and care to avoid any misconduct with respect to fraud or error[2]. Further, the common law of Australia also requires the directors to follow the duties as safe harbor for the best interest of the investors as well as for the entire company. Duties of directors are not merely for the interest of the investors but it extends to the entire company, which includes avoiding the conflicts of interests, improper use of position and companys information and such other derogatory activities. According to the provisions of the Corporation Act, a public company is required to have minimum three directors and two must be ordinary resident of Australia. Considering the provided case of Barbarians at the gate CTH (2016) 34 CSLJ 151, duties of the directors for the company and investors including other stakeholders are required to be analyzed. The case covers the activist investors as well as the provisions of section 249 N of the Corporations Act 2001. Activist investors mean a group of investors or individual investors who acquires large number of companys securities with the objective to acquire the companys management or board. The investors undertake such target if they come across any mismanagement in the companys business functions with respect to high costs, low profitability, non- compliance of legal principles and conflicts of interest to the investors[3]. Additionally, section 249 N of Corporation Act 2001 states the provisions for members resolution for the purpose of conducting a general meeting by placing a notice. Such notice for the general meeting is valid if it is provided by the members with minimum of 5% votes cast ed on the resolution or the number of members eligible to caste vote in general meeting should be 100. However, the notice should be in writing by mentioning the proper resolution and must be authenticated with the members signature. Based on the case of James Hardie and Centro with respect to the duties and obligations of the directors in the region of Australia. The case covers the responsibility of the directors to understand the documents and recordings of the financial information of the company for the benefit of the stakeholders. The directors of the company are responsible to manage the business activities with respect to the operational procedures, cost of business functions, proper presentation and preparation of the financial information[4]. The decision of the case provided a significant impact on the rights, duties and liabilities of the directors towards the investors and the entire company. The directors are responsible to follow the legal policies on maintain the corporate social responsibilities, business sustainability, maximization of profits and responsibilities for the benefit of stakeholders. For the purpose of the companys business decisions the general meeting is required to be conducted w here the approval of shareholders is required to authenticate the respective business decisions. For instance, appointment of directors for continuing the office and place of profit is required to be approved by the shareholders in general meeting. Hence, the directors are required to comply all the duties and obligations with due diligence and corporate provisions so that they can continue the performance and employment with the company. Legal Theory and Common Law represents the gap between legal provisions and specific field of such provisions with respect to the compliance of law and order. The theory covers the requirements of corporation law compliance with respect to political factors, social factors and economical factors. Business activities or functions in the companies should follow the requirements of the political, legal and social factors which the directors responsibility[5]. In case, the company is a manufacturing concern then the directors should manage the manufacturing process so that it does not harm the society and people around the manufacturing plant with the view Murphy v Electoral Commissioner HCA 36. Further, directors are required to ensure that the financial information or business transactions are properly recognized to determine the companys performance and its financial position with true and fair view. As per the provision of the Companies Act, directors are responsible to comply the re quirements for providing returns on investment to the investors as per the contracted time and manner. Duty of the directors include the duty to avoid the trading while the company is insolvent which occurs when the company is not able to pay off the debt obligations in the decided case law of Sio v The Queen HCA 32. It states that the directors are responsible to manage the cost of production and other business activities as well as generating the sales revenue to maximize the profitability of the company[6]. On the other hand, companys better performance influences the prospect investors to invest in the company that creates the value and growth in the market economy. The directors are required to maintain the companys accounting records that explains the performance of the company in the correct manner (Vines v ASIC 55 ACSR 617). If the books and other documents for the companys information should be prepared by following the provisions of Corporations Act along with the proper d isclosures for the use of the companys stakeholders. Corporate Constitutionalist model as described as per the corporate law theory defines and states the relationship between corporate and consumers including the stakeholders. The theory covers the contents of the economic analysis that affects the companys performance and sustainability by providing the principles and standards under the corporate law[7]. Corporate constitutionalism provides the ideas, values and elements by considering the political factors for the purpose of maintaining the corporate governance and taking business decisions. Companies are required to incorporate the necessary values and ideas as per the stated formulations and applications in the context of political factors as per the decided case law Jubliee Mines NL v Riley 253 ALR 673. The companies are responsible to conduct the business activities considering the social and political factors for the benefits of the consumers, investors and society along with the other stakeholders. The theory on corporate con stitutionalism focuses on the policies of corporate governance that directs the companies to conduct business in true and fair view[8]. Along with that, companies are required to follow the policies on sustainability and social responsibility by presenting the accountability of the financial information in transparent manner. The theory of corporate constitutionalism highlights the enterprise accountability, which not only states the importance of duties and responsibilities of the company towards the investors but also towards the entire community. Such duties and responsibilities are defined under the provisions of the corporation act and according to the theory; the duties are required to be divided as per the management skills and powers[9]. The theoretical framework provides the requirements of the corporate structure to delegate the requisite duties to the management and directors of the companies. It provides several models to define the duties and responsibilities of the directors to serve the company for the advantages of the shareholders and the entire company[10]. The board of directors is responsible to act not only in favor of the shareholders but also for the companys benefits with respect to the critical business decisions (ASIC v Fortescue Metals Group Ltd). Corporate stakeholders include the consumers, employees, creditors, debtors, investors, government and other executive employees for whom the enterprise is required to follow the business activities as per the required legislations and principles. In many situations companies come across the stage where business decision is required to be taken by the board of the directors in consultation of the shareholders. In such situations, directors are required to follow the standards of the corporate law as well as the requirement of the shareholders[11]. In some situations, shareholders of the company have the right to vote against the directors for the appointment in the general meeting considering the case of Gambbotto v WCP 182 CLR 432. Therefore, directors of the company are responsible to comply the provisions of the corporation act for conducting the business activities and recognizing the financial information. Directors of the company are responsible to conduct their duties for managing the business decisions to maximize the benefits of the company along with the consumers and investors. The theory on corporate constitutionalism presents the framework that directors are required to follow for managing the business process, business decisions for further investment, dividend distribution, diversification of product and services or any other critical activities[12]. According to the requirements of accounting principles and corporati on law, directors are required to present the disclosures of the valuation of the sources, their interest in the company and accounting policies Jubliee Mines NL v Riley 253 ALR 673. It is the responsibility of the management and directors to present all the relevant facts and disclosures in the financial statement so that the shareholders and other stakeholders are able to gather the information about the company. Conclusion It can be concluded that the business activities of the organizations depends on the proper duties performed by the management and directors. The directors of the company are responsible to address the concerns of the investors as well as the entire company to maximize the profitability and maintain the sustainability. Further, section 249N of the Corporation Act specifies the members requisition for presenting the notice to call a general meeting for certain business resolutions. On the other hand, directors are required to conduct their duties to manage the organizations so that the activist investors cannot acquire the company. Considering the objectives of activist investors, they acquire the organizational securities in large amount for acquiring the business management in case of material misstatement or any fraud or error. However, directors are responsible to perform the duties with respect to managing the business records properly, managing the production of goods and servic es with respect to the cost, demand, supply and sales revenue. In case, the directors fail to perform or manage the business activities following the accountability and transparency of the financial and other business information, it can be said the contravention of the corporation law. Apart from the requirements of the corporation law, theory on corporate constitutionalism presents the framework for the benefit of the entire company. It specifies the directors duties to manage the business functions for the company as a whole instead of performing only for the benefits of the shareholders. The directors are further required to manage the companys business in a way that maximizes its profitability and maintaining the sustainable growth with the compliance of corporate principles and standards. Reference List Ahn, K., "Competitive Response To Employee Mobility: Evidence From Mutual Fund Companies" (2014) 2014 Academy of Management Proceedings Arowoshegbe, Amos O. and Francis Kehinde Emeni, "Shareholders Wealth And Debt- Equity Mix Of Quoted Companies In Nigeria" (2014) 5 International Journal of Financial Research Comyns, B., "Determinants Of GHG Reporting: An Analysis Of Global Oil And Gas Companies" (2014) 2014 Academy of Management Proceedings Keay, Andrew and Michelle Welsh, "Enforcing Breaches Of Directors Duties By A Public Body And Antipodean Experiences" (2015) 15Journal of Corporate Law Studies Keay, Andrew, "The Shifting Of Directors' Duties In The Vicinity Of Insolvency" (2015) 24Int. Insolv. Rev. Khansalar, Ehsan, Mahmood Lari Dasht-Bayaz and Darioush Maboodi, "Structure Of Board Of Directors And CompanyS Performance" (2015) 10 IJBM Koleda, Nadezda and Karine Oganisjana, "Challenges In Learning For CompanyS Financial Viability Assessment And Management" (2015) 16 Business: Theory and Practice Leon Sanz, Francisco Jose, "The Incorporation Of The Directive On The Exercise Of Certain Rights By Shareholders Of Listed Companies To Spanish Law On Proxies" SSRN Electronic Journal Odewale, Robert W. and Hasnah Kamardin, "Company Performance In Nigerian Listed Companies: Do Large Shareholders Expropriate Minority Shareholders?" [2015] MJSS Reilly, T., "One Company Fund: Benchmark Senior Living Employee Benefits Program Returns Important Benefits To The Company" (2012) 44 Compensation Benefits Review Stunguriene, Stanislava and Ceslovas Christauskas, "Benefits Of Applying Different Depreciation Methods Of Long-Term Tangible Assets In A Company" (2014) 82 socscie Varzaly, Jenifer, "The Enforcement Of Directors Duties In Australia: An Empirical Analysis" (2015) 16Eur Bus Org Law Rev Zimon, Grzegorz and Dominik Zimon, "Influence Of Quality Management Systems On The Financial Capital Management Strategies In Trading Companies" [2014] Modern Management Review