Development In Social And Cultural Contexts

Development In Social And Cultural Contexts According to sociocultural theories, child development differentiates in different social and cultural contexts. Culturally- specific beliefs and practices in each sociocultural context influence childrens development in its unique way (Berk, 2009). This essay sets out to examine how Chinese childrens developments in academic knowledge and temperament are impacted by culturally-specific child rearing in Chinese society. Bronfenbrenners ecological systems theory and Vygotskys sociocultural theory are applied to analyse the general practices, the assumptions, the beliefs and the upheld values of child rearing in China. Definitions of Culture and Society Culture and society may mean different things to different people. For instance, society is defined as an association with ones fellowsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, the system of customs and organization adopted by a body of individualsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦, the aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered communityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ in the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (2002, p.2906, cited in New Zealand Tertiary College[NZTC], 2010). In this essay, society refers to the aggregate of people living together. Therefore, the Chinese society means the populations living in China. Culture in this essay refers to the distinctive customs, achievements, products, outlook, etc., of a societyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦as defined in the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (2002, p. 575, cited in NZTC, 2010). By culturally-specific child rearing practices within this essay, it means the consistent and similar child rearing practices adopted by Chinese, such as feeding, toilet training, sleeping arrangement, a nd discipline. Academic Knowledge and Temperament of shyness Generally speaking, there are three broad domains of child development: physical, emotional and social, and cognitive (Berk, 2009). This essay will focus on studying the influence of culturally-specific child rearing on Chinese childrens academic learning (cognitive development) and temperament (emotional and social development). In a study of Hong Kong-Chinese preschool childrens literacy skills, it is advised that: 75% of five years olds can write their names in Chinese correctly; more than 50% of four years olds can write appropriately using strokes and stroke patterns (the two smallest units in Chinese writings); 75% of three years olds can differentiate drawing from writing, and 20% can write appropriately (Chan Louies, 1992, cited in Chan, Juan, Foon, 2008). In international cross-cultural studies of reading, mathematics, and science achievement, children from all the participating Chinese cities, namely Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macao, are rated top performers, way above the international level (Programme for International Student Assessment, 2003, 2006, cited in Berk, 2009). Despite relevant high academic achievement, most cross-cultural studies define Chinese children as shy and withdrawn (Chen, Rubin, Li, 1995, Chen et al., 1998, cited in Berk, 2009). In a cross-cultural study of Chinese and Canadian two years olds, Chinese toddlers were found significantly more inhibited than Canadian ones (Chen et al., 1998, cited in Papalia, Olds, Feldman, 2004). Child rearing practices in the Ecological Systems According to Bronfenbrenner, the environment influencing child development can be classified into five different layers from the innermost to the outermost levels: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and the chronosystem. The microsystem refers to childrens immediate environment, such as home and early childhood centre .The mesosystem is the interaction between the microsystems. Other social settings outside the immediate environment that affect childrens development make up the exosystem. The macrosystem includes cultural values, laws, customs, and resources. Chronosystem means the whole environment system is an ever-changing system. Any changes in life events imposed by others or by the children as they grow up can modify the systems (Berk, 2009). The child rearing practices in the respective systems that contribute to childrens development of relevant high academic performance and temperament of shyness are analysed as below. At home (microsystem), the childcare is mostly carried out by mothers. Chinese mothers are found to indulge their infants and toddlers in terms of feeding, sleeping (Roopnariane Carter, 1992, cited in Yunus, 2005). They always keep their children close to them and favour physical contact over verbal stimulation. The mothers start toilet training the babies when they are six months and most of they are successfully trained by one and half years old (Whiting Whiting, 1975, Sung, 1995, Lee, 1999, cited in Yunus, 2005). It is suggested by Kelly and Tseng (2000, cited in Yunus, 2005) that the over-indulgence and early rigid toilet training are positively related to Chinese childrens slow physical and motor development. The fathers role is to discipline children. The discipline is taught by induction: explicit statement of what exactly the child is expected to do and why. If the child doesnt do as told, some parents might resort to shaming the misbehaved child, retrieving their love or e ven physical punishment (Jose, Huntsinger, Huntsinger, Liaw, 2000, Schwalb, Nakazawa, Yamamoto, Hyun, 2004, cited in Berk, 2009). The parenting style is less warm and more controlling (Dehart, Sroufe, Cooper, 2004; Berk, 2009). Yunus(2005) suggests that Chinese parenting is more authoritarian compared to Western parenting. The communication pattern is one way: parent to child. At most times, children listen attentively to what parents say. Children are not to openly express opinions on certain issues (Chiew, 2000, Zhao, 2002, Akhtar, 1998, cited in Yunus, 2005), or to express strong emotions ever since they are babies (Berk, 2009). It is found that parents do little to help their children release emotions, encouraging them to hide the emotions (Chan, Bowes, Wyver, 2009).. Children are taught the emotion-feeling rules and display rules justified with moral reasons (Wang, 2006, cited in Chan et al., 2009). Being reared in an authoritarian way and taught the emotion display rules (hiding the emotions), Chinese children are inclined to be shy and withdrawn (Chan et. al., 2009). In terms of parents attitudes towards play, almost all Chinese parents discourage their children to play at home. They often tell their children Dont think of playing all the time. Learning is most important. Believing in the importance of academic learning, parents begin to teach their children to count and write since they are three in most cases. Therefore, for home activities as well as mother-child interaction, it would be mother teaching the child to write, count, and appropriate social behaviour through fable storytelling, especially respecting the elders (Pearson Rao, 2003). A recent survey shows that before children attend primary school, 88.6% parents teach their children reading, recognising Chinese characters and counting; 28.2% parents teach their children foreign language, and 20.3% parents tutor their children the courses for primary school (Wang, Wang, Chen, 2010). A lot of demonstration, time to practice academic skills, and explicit values of academic skills, faci litate Chinese childrens development in academic knowledge (Chan et al., 2008; Gershoff Aber, 2006, cited in Berk, 2009). Most Chinese parents send their children to kindergartens when they are three. The children will then spend eight to nine hours daily in the kindergarten (Liu Elicker, 2005). The interaction between Chinese parents and teachers (mesosystem) is limited (Schwartz, 2003, cited in Yunus, 2005). While parents do concern about their childrens learning, they assign the teaching responsibility to teachers, relying on the teachers for childrens learning in the kindergarten (Morrow, 1999, cited in Yunus, 2005). In a survey of parents expectations of kindergarten teaching, parents express their main aspirations for their children as possessing academic skills and filial piety (88%) (Xinyuan Kindergarten, 2010). Parents highly valuing academic skills urges teachers to put a lot of efforts in academic teaching to meet up their expectations. In China the child rearing is shared among the extended family (exosystem), especially grandparents take up a large role in raising the children. The filial piety and the whole system of family are greatly valued among the extended family (Yunus, 2005). Children are taught the importance of respecting the elders and the obligation to contribute to familys honour by behaving properly (Zhao, 2002, cited in Yunus, 2005). When children are shy, reticent, quiet, they are considered by the extended family to be well-behaved and having sense of understanding (Hart, Yang, Nelson, Robinson, Olsen, Nelson, Porter, Jin, Olsen, Wu, 2000). Children are constantly reminded that their first means to fulfil family responsibility and obligation is through education (Yunus, 2005). The expectation of academic achievement and honouring family reputations placed by the extended family put pressure on parents child education and childrens motivation towards high academic performance. In macrosystem, the Chinese families are greatly influenced by Confucian philosophy stressing the importance of academic achievement and social harmony. The following assumptions are deeply rooted in Chinese child rearing practices: children inherently penchant for the good; proper training during early childhood helps to build childrens positive character; formal education and high standards of academic achievement is important for childrens development (Yunus, 2005). It is the custom that parents are to provide an environment conducive to academic achievement, while children are to work hard for high performance in academics. Besides, Chinese value the doctrine of mean (Zhong Yong Zhi Dao in Mandarin), not being extreme. Inhibited, sensitive, and socially restrained behaviour are highly valued in the Chinese culture (Ho, 1986, Lao, 1996, Chen, in press, cited in Hart et al., 2000). It is partly because they prioritise the importance of maintaining social order and interpersonal har mony in the society at large in the collectivism society (Hart e al., 2000). The one-child policy in China also affects childrens development to a great extent. Having only one child, a lot of parents do their best to start their childrens education at the possible earliest age to make their children more advantaged within the intensely competitive Chinese educational system (Brassard Chen, 2005). Government also devote the increased resources to the care and education of children to support the families and to secure the countrys future generations success in the highly competitive economy (Dehart et al., 2004). In the chronosystem, while shyness is traditionally valued by parents and the society, recent researches indicate a change of peoples attitudes towards childrens shyness. With the rapid growth of the economy, assertiveness and sociability started to be viewed as desirable for success in the society (Chen, Wang, DeSouza, 2006, Yu, 2002, cited in Berk, 2009). It is reasonable to assume, with parents values swift, their way of interacting with children will change accordingly in the future, influencing childrens development in a different way. Figure 1. Chinese child rearing practices contributing to academic learning and shyness in the Ecological Systems. Vygotskys sociocultural theory According to Vygotskys sociocultural theory, each culture provides its own context and different goals for children (Drewery Bird, 2004). Vygotsky proposes that cultural influence children through cultural tools, which refer to the knowledge of cultural practices that help children fit into their cultural context, including language, rituals, ceremonies and social values and beliefs that guide peoples thinking (Crain, 2000, cited in NZTC, 2010). Vygotsky further suggests that the values, beliefs, customs and desirable skills of a culture are transmitted to the next generation through social interaction, in particular through scaffolding by adults and more-advanced peers (Rowe Wertsch, 2002, cited in Berk, 2009). In china, the selected goals for children are high academic achievement and maintaining social harmony. There goals are valued by the Confucian philosophy which still deeply influences the Chinese parents (Hart et al., 2000). Parents encourage children to develop these culturally valued skills at an early age of three. Children strive for these desirable skills to fit into the sociocultural context. Social value and belief of early formal education, cultural practices upholding the academics and proper social behaviour of respecting elders and shyness add to the Chinese cultural tools. All these cultural tools support the daily child rearing practices, educational activities, the routines, the child-adult interactions as analysed in the ecological systems (Crain, 2000, cited in NZTC, 2010). Through interaction with their parents, extended family, children learn, apply and internalize these cultural values and tools of academic learning and temperament of shyness. Conclusion Different sociocultural environment places different goals and expectations on children. When the sociocultural context changes over time, certain values and practices might change. Generally speaking, Chinese children are expected to fulfill the goals and expectations of academic achievement and maintaining social harmony placed by their parents, extended family, and society. The values, beliefs upheld by the society affect the parents and extended family, and the extended family and parents influence childrens development in academic learning and temperament through specific child rearing practices emphasising these skills.

Tell Tale Heart Essay

HTH s idea is portrayed hen we see the protagonists struggle between himself and the old man's eve axed eye. As the story progresses, the conflict between the protagonist and the beating heart r enders the idea of the narrator versus himself. The external struggle within the Story seems to be the narrator's conflict with the old man. The protagonist loved the old man, eliminating motives that might normally in spire such a violent murder.As he proclaims his own sanity, the narrator fixates on the old man's vulture. â€Å"It was open wide, wide open and grew furious as gazed upon it. Saw it wit h perfect strictness all a dull blue, with a hideous veil over it that chilled the very mar row in my bones; but I could see nothing else of the old man ‘s face or person: for I had directed the ray as if by instinct, precisely upon the damned spot. † The narrator reduces the old man t o the distinctive blue of his eye in obsessive fashion.He separates the man from his â€Å"Evil Eye† so he can spare the man the burden of guilt that he attributes to the eye itself. The narrator FAA ills to see that the eye of the old man is a fundamental part of his identity that cannot be isolate d as the narrator abnormally imagines. As a result of his warped sense of reality, the narrator obsesses over the low beats of the man's heart, yet shows little concern about the man's shrieks, which are loud enough to attract his neighbor's attention and draw the police to the scene of the crime.Through hoot the story, he explains that he is not mad, but ironically, he is the opposite of this, as he strut eagles to comprehend his own mind. The narrator's paranoia and guilt make it mine NT that he will give himself away. The police arrive on the scene to give him the opportunity to be tray himself. The more the narrator professes his own calm manner, the more he is unable to e cape the beating of his own heart, which he mistakes for the beating of the old man's heart.As he co nfesses to the crime in the final sentence, he addresses the policemen as â€Å"villains,† indicating g his incapability to distinguish between their real identity and his own villainy. The internal conflict within the story is disguised as external conflict, through t he way that Poe describes the struggle of man versus man and man versus self. The protagonist battles with the old man's â€Å"vexed† eye; however, this slowly turns into a combat bet en the narrators own mind, as he tries to escape the beating of his own heart.

How John Hersey Revealed the Horrors of the Atomic Bomb to the US - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1400 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2019/07/31 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: Hiroshima Essay Did you like this example? The non-fiction book Hiroshima by John Hersey is one that comes with an overwhelming amount of emotions. John Herseys Hiroshima had many themes such as fear, panic, grief, disgust, and hope. The book describes the stories of six survivors hours before the bomb and weeks after, with a conclusion of their lives forty years later. This essay will critically analyze John Herseys book Hiroshima which will bring awareness to its readers about the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, Japan through all six survivors real-life experiences. The first chapter of the book named the A Noiseless Flash opens with the events of the six survivors hours before the atomic bomb hit Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. Throughout chapter one the readers become acquainted with the six individuals: Miss Toshiko Sasaki a twenty-year-old clerk who worked for East Asia Tin Works and was 1,600 yards from the center of the bomb. Father Wilhelm Kleinsorge a German priest who was having difficulty adjusting to the Japan life and was about 1,400 yards from the point of the explosion. Dr. Masakazu Fujii a physician of a prosperous single-doctor hospital was situated about 1,550 yards from the epicenter of the explosion. Dr. Terufumi Sasaki who shares the same surname as Toshiko but not related, a 25-year-old Red Cross hospital surgeon situated 1,650 yards from point of explosion. Reverend Mr. Kiyoshi Tanimoto a pastor at Hiroshima Methodist Church, fluent in English, was at the point of the explosion over 3000 yards. Mrs. Hatsuyo Nakamura a tailors widow raising her children, who loved only 1350 yards from where the atomic bomb was dropped. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "How John Hersey Revealed the Horrors of the Atomic Bomb to the US" essay for you Create order The second chapter named The Fire continues with the events that occurred directly after the explosion. After the atomic bomb hit fires rapidly spread through Hiroshima causing more chaos for six survivors. This chapter details their attempt to escape the rapidly growing fires and help fellow victims. The individuals are divided into a division of those who are in tremendous agony, and those who feel an intolerable amount of guilt for not being as injured as those around them. The third chapter titled Details Are Being Investigated shows the realizations of the six individuals as they deal with the chaos that surrounds them. Mr. Tanimoto works tirelessly to carry an individual from one side of the river to the other in order to escape the flames. The Nakamuras suffering from sickness learn that all their family is dead. Due to his help during the explosion, Father Kleinsorge is accepted amongst the Japanese. Miss Sasaki lying helpless outside the factory until someone spots her, calls for help then is taken helps to a hospital. The city is overtaken with corpses, while Dr. Sasaki, overworked and severely sleep deprived, attends to an overwhelming number of patients. Meanwhile, Dr. Fujii sleeps inside his familys collapsing house and is seriously injured. The chapter ends with the defeat and surrender of Japan. The next chapter called Panic Grass and Feverfew begins twelve days after the attack and the rapidly continues to the rehabilitation of the city and six survivors. The secondary effects of the radiation from the atomic bomb are now appearing in the survivors. The six individuals and all affected began to come down with malaise, hair loss, nausea, pain, and fever. Little did they know that they developed what later became known as radiation sickness. Feelings of anti-American sentiment spread throughout the Japanese communities until it was announced that the radiation levels were safe enough for individuals to return to Hiroshima. A theory by Dr.Sasaki and his colleagues suggested that the unprecedented diseases unfolded in three stages. The chapter ends with the summary of the six survivors lives a year after the atomic bombing. Miss Sasaki was still disabled, Mrs. Nakamura was poverty-stricken, father Kleinsorge was once again in the hospital, Dr. Sasaki the only surgeon was often times overworked, Dr. Fujii had lost the prestigious hospital that took him many years to acquire, and Mr.Tanimotos had been ruined with no means to rebuild. The last chapter called The Aftermath takes place forty years after the atomic bombing. This last chapter highlights the anti-semitic feelings toward survivors who were now called Hibakusha that literally translated to explosion-affected person. These Hibakusha were treated with prejudice by employers since they were prone to many ailments and needed many days of rest. The government did little to nothing to provide physical or economic relief for the survivors until 1957, twelve years later a law called the Diet was passed. Despite their many setbacks, the six survivors achieved somewhat a degree of happiness. Reading this book affected me in many ways. The way John Hersey described the events that unfolded through the eyes of the survivors made me feel as if I was witnessing the tragic moments right before my eyes. I felt extreme grief as each individual detailed their own accounts immediately after the bombing. During Mr.Tanimotos account with the individuals that were stuck in the mud, he said On the other side, at a higher spit, he lifted the slimy living bodies out and carried them up the slope away from the tide. He had to keep consciously repeating to himself, these are human beings (Hersey 45)after reading this quote I came to realize just how grotesque the conditions of the victims were. Mr. Tanimoto, despite the disgust he may have felt helping the slimy individuals did so because they were human which made me feel a sense of sympathy for Mr.Tanimoto. As I read their accounts I would imagine myself in their position and came to have anger toward the American military and Presiden t Truman for allowing such an atrocity to occur. I felt even angrier that for many years the Japanese government did nothing to help the victims of the bombing physically or economically for many years after the attack took place. At times I had to stop and take a break from the book because of the deep sorrow I felt. Towards the end of the book, I felt a sense of hope for the six survivors. Despite all their ailments that sometimes enabled them, they went on with their lives as best as they could. Reading accounts such as these makes me realize just how much worse my life could be. The book, in my opinion, left out the also important views of the American people. I see how tremendously the Japanese people suffered but, he fails to mention the sufferings of the American people at Pearl Harbor and the death march at the Bataan Camps that lead to the atomic bombing. He failed to give me a chance to develop a fair opinion since he left out the perspectives of the American people. Despite the exclusion of the American perspective, I would highly recommend this book to other individuals. This book details important historical events that impacted humanity. John Hersey interestingly described the tragic events of the six survivors that kept me wanting more. I feel that books such as Hiroshima should be read by everyone to prevent such horrendous events from occurring again. From reading Hiroshima, I learned the importance of history in my life today. I learned that humans can be sympathetic, helpful, and put aside their differences to overcome such a tragedy. I also learned that humans can be cruel and selfish just as the Americans who bombed Hiroshima without a thought about the consequences. This book relates to this course in the theme of chapter 26 called Containing the Japanese. In this section, the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor is brought up along with the attack on Americas reaming air power in the Philippines prior to the American attack on the Japanese. The lives of the individuals were all tremendously affected, but they all eventually achieved a degree of happiness. Despite their lives being negatively affected by the travesty of the explosion, all six survivors found a way to go on. Although Hiroshima was written in a fictional setting it is important to remember that these accounts Hersey is writing about are in fact true. John Hersey does not give his own opinion and leaves the reader yearning for more answers. John Herseys intentions in writing this book were to prevent us from repeating history and hopefully give more thought before the use of a nuclear weapon on civilians is made. In conclusion, the book reminds us humans of the powerful horrors of weapons of mass destruction.

Historical Cultural Context On The City Of Corinth

INTRODUCTION 1 Corinthians 1:18-25, in many ways offers a measuring stick for what true wisdom and power is, according to Scripture. While the believers in Corinth are looking for, and claiming to have, true wisdom and power, Paul addresses the issue and makes it clear that true wisdom and power are found in Christ and in the message of the cross. In no uncertain terms, Paul states that the wisdom of the world is lacking and is unable to save â€Å"those who are perishing.† But, the so-called foolishness of God has the power to save those who believe, and is found only in the cross of Jesus Christ. While Jews and Greeks alike are searching for that which saves, Paul makes it clear that salvation is not found in the wisdom and power of†¦show more content†¦Because of its beneficial geographical location, Corinth was extremely prosperous, and that financial prosperity led to ever increasing moral corruption. While most Greco-Roman cities were marked with immorality, Corinth se emed to rise above the rest in this particular area. â€Å"Even by the pagan standards of its own culture, Corinth became so morally corrupt that its very name became synonymous with debauchery and moral depravity.† LITERARY CONTEXT The first letter to the Corinthians as a whole alternates between responses to reports and answers to questions from the church, and 1 Corinthians 1:18-25 is found in the beginning of Paul’s first response to reports dealing with factions and divisions within the body of believers. The previous section of the letter is the introduction and Paul’s note of thanks for the Corinthian believers. There is a distinct note of commendation and love in the first section before Paul begins to condemn and exhort the Corinthians for their poor behavior. Much of this behavior is linked to their boasting about their wisdom, or the wisdom of those whom they choose to follow. Therefore, much of Paul’s teaching is in relation to true wisdom, as opposed to worldly wisdom. Paul continues to address the issue of factions in the church by further concentrating on the issue of wisdom, before he begins approaching other issues from the report in chapters 5 and 6. F ollowing this, Paul begins to address the questions posed by the